Mozarabic Religious Culture in Spain

Mozarabic Religious Culture in Spain People define art as something which has been molded from talent and skills. It is something made out of inspiration or something that the artist envisions. We consider the remnants of the past as arts, Greek potteries, ancient paintings or buildings, illuminated manuscripts and so forth. These objects may be admired and appreciated in several different ways but what we see may not be the view of the artist who made it centuries ago. There were relics of the past that has shown history. There are objects that we may consider today as an object of art but what we see is just a small fraction of what it has been to the people where it had been before. It may represent what culture it came from, what trials did the creator of the object had gone through to make something that would subsist through the years to be appreciated and be treasured in the present time. In most histories, there were always things found that represents what kind of life they have lived, murals that tells the sto ry of our ancestors existence just like a diary in the present time. In the history of Spain there existed a group of minorities which made an impact in the countrys history religiously and artistically. Mozarabs were Iberlian Christians living in Al-andalus, a nation in the Iberian Peninsula. The term Mozarabic is derived from the word mustarib or mustarab which came from the Arab root word araba, meaning in the active sense, to make oneself similar to the arabs or having assimilated Arabic customs or most specifically designating someone who had the appearance of an Arab, was indistinguishable from the Arabs, an would not stand out in the crowd of Arabs (Corominas 244). It was a term derived to call the Christians who lived in the control of the Muslim lands and avoid confusion among old Christians who resided in Al-andalus and other Christians. Although Spain was Muslim in that period (711-1492), Mozarabs were treated good-naturedly, though they remain unconverted to Islam and didnt actually enjoy equal rights. A few agreed to be converted to Islam to avoid the heavy tax being subjected to them. The conversion also opened opportunities for them to make a better living and alleviate their status in the society since they were in a Muslim community. They have adopted Arab customs, culture and Arabic language. Christians lived in a separate community; they had their own government, and paid a special tax in place of the requirement made of Muslims to serve in the army. There were Mozarab women who married Muslim men and their children were raised as Muslims. Mozarabic was the romance language they spoke (Hitchcock 12). This language was first documented in the Peninsula in the form of choruses or kharjas in Arabic and Hebrew lyrics called muwashshahs. Even though Arabs were driven out of Spain at the end of 15th century and the language has died out, it is sometimes claimed that Mozarabic has left its mark on the dialects of Southern Spain and Portugal. In their time, Mozarabs never call their language as Mozarabics nor themselves as Mozarabs. At times Christian communities prospered in Muslim Spain; these Christians are now usually referred to as Mozà ¡rabes, although the term was not in use at the time (Hitchcock 1978). Historians started calling them Mozarabs only in the 19th century referring to the Christians who lived under the Muslim rules in the Iberian Peninsula during the middle ages. The Mozarabs had ritual worships in the Catholic Church which was Mozarabic Liturgy. It was most celebrated on Sundays and on great feasts. The Mozarabic rite is the second-best most attested preserved documented liturgy in the Latin Church; the first is the Roman rite. The role of the Blessed Virgin Mary is emphasized in their rites more than that of the Romans. They were also the first to use ashes within the liturgical celebrations. Mozarabic Liturgy is also called Gothic-Spanish, Isidorian and Toledian (Gihr 334). Many of the existing manuscripts of these rites are in cathedral Chapter Library at Toledo. There were manuscripts found by the cardinal in the library of the cathedral in Toledo in 1502 as mentioned by Gomez to his edition of Brevarium Gothicum which was published in Madrid, 1775. These manuscripts were one of the magnificent Mozarabic arts preserved from their time. It was said that these manuscripts were written in old Gothic characters and related to the ancient Spanish Liturgy (Notes Queries 41). The manuscript was said to have a resemblance to the Roman Liturgy in every essential part. The Mozarabic Liturgy is an essential part of the Spanish Christian History. Their rites continued to be used in the five churches of Toledo until 1842 when the Spanish government suppressed the churches throughout the country and the number of parishes dropped. Another essential part of the Mozarabic Liturgy is the Mozarabic chant which has a significant influence from the Gregorian chants. It was also a period of musical creativity in the part of being liturgical, which was still preserved at present time. It was intended to be sung by males, in accordance with the Roman Catholic Tradition and was monophonic and a capella. There were four chant categories, recitation, syllabic, neumatic, and melismatic. Chants were considered a method for spiritual development; it can be performed individually or in a group. Chants may involve throat singing as in Tibetan Buddhists and chanting mantras which are particular to Hindus. In the time of the Moorish invasion in Toledo there was a clash in the liturgical rites because the king and queen preferred the Roman rites so in order to decide which of the two were most favored by heaven they agreed to choose their own champions to fight in mortal combat. But when the Mozarabs won, the king and queen were annoyed by their triumph and later came to a thought that it is not appropriate to question theology in the form of a combat. It is only through a miracle that they will determine heavens response. Believing that their rituals were exceptional they proposed to make another deal where the two liturgies were thrown into fire while each party prays to heaven. The one which will not be burned will be considered the most favorable to heaven. The Roman ritual came out scorched but the Toledan remained on the spot where it was thrown and remained without injury. The Mozarabic ritual was then preserved and followed for a long period by their descendants until the copies of the rituals were lost and no one was able to perform and understand the services which had caused disputation between them. Having the desire not to discontinue such significant custom, Don Francisco Ximenes, archbishop of Toledo, founded a Mozarabic chapel where Mozarabic services were to be celebrated. The chapel which still exists is ornamented with interesting Gothic frescoes which were still in a perfect stage of preservation. It represents various combats between Toledans and Moors, another is meticulously painted frescoes which shows the vessels that brought the Arabs to Spain(Gautier 127). One of the paintings represents the old Toledo during that time and information about the arms, costumes, weapons and architecture of their period in vast details. The cloisters, as well, were covered with frescoes. They surround a number of elegant and severe arcades of beautiful masses of vendure[à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] (Gautier 127). The cloisters were fittingly located near the church whe re you can walk about and reflect your thoughts without having to join in a ceremony or in a prayer. It was a peaceful and cheerful surrounding. The church in St.Thome at Toledo which was Moorish in all its details was classified as Mozarabic Architecture. There were many of the same class with horseshoe shaped arches and ribbed domes which were undoubtedly known as made by Christians but has Islamic influences (Fergusson 158). Mozarabic architectures has absence of exterior decoration, diverse in the floor plans, the majority of the structure is emphasized in the small proportions/ carvings (segmented, ribbed of horseshoe transept, etc.). It was known that Mozarabic arts and architecture were a fusion of Christian and Arabic influences whereas the adjective Mozarabic was derived. These practices were seen in the artistic church architectures and manuscript designs. There were various buildings in Spain with Mozarabic influence but there were ones which were purely Mozarabic. Some e xamples were the Iglesia de San Miguel de Escalada (fig.1), east of Leon; the Ermita de San Baudelio (fig.2), beyond Berlanga de Duero in Soria province; and Iglesia de Sta Maria de Lebeà ±a (fig.3), on the east side of the Picos de Europa mountains. Various churches with Mozarabic characteristics were built during religiously tolerant periods across Al-andalus. Eventually, most of them were destroyed or damaged in the years of conflict and persecution between different communities. An important characteristic of the Mozarabs was that they stick to their customs, cultures and religion although they were not allowed to build new churches. The eighth century is a fundamental phase for Christian culture in Spain where numerous architectural and artistic customs arose with influences from early Christian and Carolingian Art. When the Mozarabs migrated to north of Spain they established many monasteries where a certain change in the regions concept in architecture, sculpture and painting occur. Along with the changes in the traditional architecture there arose an illumination of manuscripts mostly from the Bible and the New Testament and Beatus of Liebanas commentary on the Book of Apocalypse also known as the Book of Revelation of St. John. It was the reason that Beatus of Liebana was known in the later decades of the eighth century. Beatus of Liebana was known a monk, theologian and geographer. He was also know to have written two other texts, being the co-author of the Apologeticum which is also known as the Letter of the Etherius and Beatus to Elipandus and as the possible author of the sixty-line acrostic hymn known as O Dei Verbum (Kinane 48). In his time, having studied the New Testament Apocalypse, he saw the signs which were to his belief the sign of the Second Coming of Jesus Christ. The Adoptionist movement which does not believe that Jesus is the Son of God is, to his view, the anti-christ. He wrote a letter to Archbishop Elipandus of Toledo about the error of his ways. To the latters annoyance, he wrote a letter to the Asturian abbot Fidel accusing Beatus of the sin of arrogance, being a lowly monk teaching ways to an Archbishop(Kinane 50). The archbishops words of sarcasm and name-calling might have served for Beatus to write the Apologeticum where he turned the Archbishops word back on him entwining words based from the Bible. He proved in his own logical form that Elipandus is the Antichrist which caused Doctrinal war and brought Elipandus to scrutiny throughout Europe. Beatus calculated the Second Coming of Christ based on the events in the Bible and had arrived to the conclusion that the 6th millennium from the time of Adam would be the end of days. In total, the Mozarabs religious culture had been of great influence in Spains customs and its arts and architecture. Although a minority group they have proved to have lived in what they believed and fought for it. They played an essential part in its religious history and had been a foundation of Christianity.

Conflict with Authority in A Midsummer Night’s Dream Essay -- Midsumme

Conflict with Authority in A Midsummer Night’s Dream Throughout A Midsummer Night’s Dream the theme of conflict with authority is apparent and is the cause of the problems that befall the characters. It also is used to set the mood of the play. The passage below spoken by Theseus in the opening of the play clearly states this theme. Be advised fair maid. To you your father should be as god- One that composed your beauties, yea, and one To whom you are but as a form in wax By him imprinted, and within his power To leave the figure or disfigure it - A Midsummer Night’s Dream (1.1.46-51) The first example of conflict with authority in the play is the premiere example and sets up the conflict for the rest of the play. This example that occurs during the play is in the opening scene of act 1. Here we see Theseus warning Hermia not to disobey her father and advising her that Egeus created her and can "discreate" her if he chooses. Hermia is reminded that Athenian law provides that a father shall have total control of his daughter’s life until the daughter is married. Even though Hermia does not want to marry Demetrius, the law says she has no choice and must conform to her father’s wishes. If Egeus’s authority hadn’t been the supreme authority, than Hermia and Lysander wouldn’t have had to flee Athens for their love. The other major example of conflict with authority is also partly responsible for the friction that occurs in the play. This example occurs in the fairy world between Oberon and Titania. Oberon, as king of the fairies, is the supreme authority in the fairy world. Therefore, by disobeying him, Titania is defying her supreme authority. Her disobedience causes the conflict in nature that is apparen... ... on the mood. Through Theseus’s speech to Hermia, Shakespeare introduces and establishes a central theme that is readily apparent throughout A Midsummer Night’s Dream and he also uses this theme to establish the central mood of the play. Theseus reveals the central theme of the play in the opening act, particularly in the lines being examined, and we see this theme throughout A Midsummer Night’s Dream. It occurs in three different situations and is carried on throughout the rest of the play. Shakespeare also uses this theme to create the mood of the play. In this way the passage spoken by Theseus becomes a pivotal point of the play. It serves as the introduction of the central theme of the play and also as the main device Shakespeare used to set of the mood. Shakespeare uses this passage as a starting point for the direction that the rest of the play will take.

Career Paper

Deciding on a certain career has been difficult and very challenging. Going through elementary school and middle school and deciding what career path way I should take, the first two that caught my attention were anesthesiologist and general surgeon. As a child, I never thought that I would want to go to these fields. As a student, I sometimes have my ups and downs in school but that doesn't stop me from doing what I love. In my opinion school is like the next level of a game and I must do my best to beat that level. Sometimes it's tough but I'll manage somehow. Preparing to become an anesthesiologist begins in high school.Since university or college focuses on classes in premed, some recommends getting a head start taking science classes in high school. Biology and chemistry classes will provide you with the knowledge required to be successful. I still don't know which of the two careers I should decide on. Luckily, the two careers matched closely to my personality type. What do sur geons do? General Surgeons are doctors who are specialized in performing surgery on abdominal areas such as the esophagi, stomach, small bowel, colon, liver, pancreas, gallbladder and bile ducts, but sometime often the thyroid gland.They also focus on disease involving the breast, skin, or any soft tissue. Depending on the type of surgeon, they perform different surgeries. For example a cardiovascular surgeon might do open heart surgery, while a breast surgeon might do breast surgery to save someone from having breast cancer. Surgeons are part of a team. They rely on an anesthesiologist to keep the patient asleep and comfortable, nurses and assistants are responsible for passing the surgeon any tools that are needed to do the surgery, and keeping track of the patient's vital signs and many other things.Sometimes in difficult procedures surgeons often work together as a am to do more work in less time, and in teaching hospitals interns and residents are with more experienced surgeons to observe and learn. Many surgeons work for very long hours, some are scheduled to work for certain amount of hours depending on the hospital. Even doctors who work in private practice spends long hours in the operating room, and are expected to work with other health care professionals to make sure that everything is going smoothly.A lot of surgeons, most of the time are responsible for managing a lot of paperwork such as possessing a patient's files to reviewing records and so much more. There are many types of surgeon and focusing in different areas of the body. Unlike other doctors, surgeons must first complete four years of study at any college, depending which one has the specific field. Surgeons must complete an additional four year and get their MD or Doctor of Medicine degree from an approved medical school. Most applicants take a large amount of courses in subjects like chemistry, and physics.Also, they must pass the Medical College Admission Test (MICA). Once they have gotten their MD, graduates have to go through a minimum of five years of surgery residency. During this course, dents are trained in general surgical procedures. Why is an anesthesiologist important during any surgery? Anesthesiologists are medical doctors specializing in preoperative care. They help to ensure the patients are safe while going through surgery and are involve in putting the patient to sleep so they won't feel pain or sensation.Without anesthesiologists, surgery would not be possible in a lot of operations. They are responsible for the patient before, during and after the surgery. In terms of education, one must complete at least 3 years of a bachelor's degree, many applicants have 4 years which also include ultimate science courses. Anesthesiologist must have a high score on the Medical College Admission Test (MICA), also a letter of recommendation from their teachers and advisors. Many medical schools also consider things like leadership qualities, and extracurricul ar activities when making admissions decisions.After graduation, anesthesiologists enter into a residency program. Usually the first year is spent in an internship, practicing general medicine and learning from other anesthesiologist. During the next couple years, they learn the techniques and skills of anesthesiology with the help and supervision of another. At the end of the residency, they will need to take the United States Medical Licensing Examination to obtain licenser to practice medicine in the United States, and then they can work as an anesthesiologist.What exactly does an anesthesiologist do? Their Job is to keep you safe and comfortable during surgery and recovery. They monitor your heart rhythm, blood pressure and the amount of oxygen in your blood. Also, they monitor your temperature and your level of consciousness. When patients are sleeping, they monitor the patient's breath by measuring the volume of breath exhaled and the mount of carbon dioxide in their breathing . Sometimes, they may monitor how much blood the patient is pumping and the pressure in the lung.The anesthesiologist must keep the patient asleep during a surgery by giving them anesthetic drugs and some drugs are giving to them at all times. Some drugs are mixed in with others and sometimes with the oxygen the patient is breathing. If the patient comes across problem during surgery such as low blood pressure, asthma, blood loss, heart arrhythmia and many others, the anesthesiologist must find a way to correct the problem. The care nurse and the anesthesiologist work together to cake sure the patient is safe and comfortable. How much does an anesthesiologist and surgeon make?The annual salary for an Anesthesiologist is about $166,400 while the median is about $355,100 in the United States. The anesthesiologist is one of the highest paying Jobs in the medical field. According to US Bureau of Labor statistics, the top paid anesthesiologist employed in public sectors is about $197,000 per year while self employed received about $316,500 yearly. They make more than $80. 00 per for the median. The lowest 10 percent receive up to $55. 52 per hour. Depending on the state or location that you vive in, some places have a higher income than others.On the other hand, surgeons make a little bit more. The median salary for a typical surgeon in the United States is about $343,000. Depends on the particular procedure, they range at around $250 per hour. Different surgeon makes more money than others, for example a pediatric surgeon make about $166,000 a year, while a barbaric surgeon make $433,000 a year. The salary is different in most cases. Choosing a career can be difficult but as time goes by you will soon know what interests you. As we Journey through life, we will have to decide on what we want to o or become.Everything and anything is possible if you take your time and give it your best. You really won't know the possibility that you have to get into Med School unti l you have taken the science courses that college offer. Medical Schools don't really care what kind of grades or experience you have in High School. That doesn't mean you should stop and give up, start by participating in some sort of extracurricular activity, and possibly doing some volunteer work. Volunteering at a hospital is going to look better and increase your chances of getting into that particular school.An anesthesiologist and a surgeon are two different things yet they depend on one another for a surgery to be possible. Sometimes it is difficult and hard to decide what you want to do in life. As a freshman, I still haven't decide what to do with my life but for now I will continue with school and hopefully one day I will know what I should do. With the overwhelming responsibilities of anesthesiologists and surgeons, some people decide to become something else that they love. Doesn't matter what you become as long as you love what you do then it shouldn't matter to how mu ch you make a year.

Globalization And The Spread Of Disease - 1918 Words

Globalization Written Assignment 4 There are many opinions and thoughts I have regarding the subject matter of this week’s written assignment. I will attempt to demonstrate in a short, succinct way, the ideas that have been lurking in my mind regarding these topics. The paper will go through reducing flows of people and goods, options regarding the spread of global disease, the spread of food-borne illnesses, reducing the incidence of food-borne illnesses, and the broad topic of GMOs. First, I think the movement of people, food, and manufactured goods cannot effectively be reduced by making laws or restrictions on these items. It might work for a time, but it may have the negative side effect of economic distress and entrenched nationalism. Besides, in my opinion, this is not the best method of dealing with spreading of disease. 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